Tuesday 30 June 2009

Partying is cool!Indian girls are partying aboard 03

























Government of India is giving them special status as they bring in lot of foregin exchange money into India. Specially through remittances from UAE, Saudi Arabia and other countries. Guys from India like to follow them, because they look beautiful and seductively attractive. Check out the recent Hubpages or HubGalleries of these NRI desi girl seriesBiggest NRI population is in United Arab Emirates – estimated to be around 14 lakhs (1.4 millions) with another million or so in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain, and other gulf countries.There is also a large population of desi living in Caribbean. Way back in 1838 to 1917, when slavery was abolished, there was a huge demand for labor and manpower. Caribbean was under British and so was India at that time. So the British under its Raj, brought ship loads of Indians to work in the Caribbean as laborers. The first ship arrived in 5 May 1838. Majority of the Indian arrived from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. And an equal numbers from South India from the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. In some parts of Caribbean, Indian origin population are highest, and in rest of the Caribbean island, it is ranked 2nd.But the most sort after are desi NRI living in United States and other western countries.Here are some beautiful photo collection of NRI desi girls enjoying their holidays aboard in their swimwear and bikini. Hope you too enjoy. In hubPages, there are several hubs devoted to NRI girls - Non-Resident Indians. Photo collection of girls who have migrated aboard couple of generation ago are most wanted on the net. In various forum , social networking sites, there are such hot collection of photos - some are partying girls - and a lot more are on the beach side. They are willing to pose in seductive dress to please the ever hungry India young boys.for those young boys, presenting here are some hot collection of NRI - our own Non-resident Indian girls partying aboard. The original desi girls are either born and brought up there or have moved years ago!Enjoy and send in your comments. Also you can add or send you own such photos for inclusion into my Gallery No.2. attractive. Check out the recent Hubpages or HubGalleries of these NRI desi girl seriesBiggest NRI population is in United Arab Emirates – estimated to be around 14 lakhs (1.4 millions) with another million or so in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain, and other gulf countries.There is also a large population of desi living in Caribbean. Way back in 1838 to 1917, when slavery was abolished, there was a huge demand for labor and manpower. Caribbean was under British and so was India at that time. So the British under its Raj, brought ship loads of Indians to work in the Caribbean as laborers. The first ship arrived in 5 May 1838. Majority of the Indian arrived from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. And an equal numbers from South India from the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. In some parts of Caribbean, Indian origin population are highest, and in rest of the Caribbean island, it is ranked 2nd.But the most sort after are desi NRI living in United States and other western countries.Here are some beautiful photo collection of NRI desi girls enjoying their holidays aboard in their swimwear and bikini. Hope you too enjoy. In hubPages, there are several hubs devoted to NRI girls - Non-Resident Indians. Photo collection of girls who have migrated aboard couple of generation ago are most wanted on the net. In various forum , social networking sites, there are such hot collection of photos - some are partying girls - and a lot more are on the beach side. They are willing to pose in seductive dress to please the ever hungry India young boys.for those young boys, presenting here are some hot collection of NRI - our own Non-resident Indian girls partying aboard. The original desi girls are either born and brought up there or have moved years ago!Enjoy and send in your comments. Also you can add or send you own such photos for inclusion into my Gallery No.2. attractive. Check out the recent Hubpages or HubGalleries of these NRI desi girl seriesBiggest NRI population is in United Arab Emirates – estimated to be around 14 lakhs (1.4 millions) with another million or so in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain, and other gulf countries.There is also a large population of desi living in Caribbean. Way back in 1838 to 1917, when slavery was abolished, there was a huge demand for labor and manpower. Caribbean was under British and so was India at that time. So the British under its Raj, brought ship loads of Indians to work in the Caribbean as laborers. The first ship arrived in 5 May 1838. Majority of the Indian arrived from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. And an equal numbers from South India from the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. In some parts of Caribbean, Indian origin population are highest, and in rest of the Caribbean island, it is ranked 2nd.But the most sort after are desi NRI living in United States and other western countries.Here are some beautiful photo collection of NRI desi girls enjoying their holidays aboard in their swimwear and bikini. Hope you too enjoy. In hubPages, there are several hubs devoted to NRI girls - Non-Resident Indians. Photo collection of girls who have migrated aboard couple of generation ago are most wanted on the net. In various forum , social networking sites, there are such hot collection of photos - some are partying girls - and a lot more are on the beach side. They are willing to pose in seductive dress to please the ever hungry India young boys.for those young boys, presenting here are some hot collection of NRI - our own Non-resident Indian girls partying aboard. The original desi girls are either born and brought up there or have moved years ago!Enjoy and send in your comments. Also you can add or send you own such photos for inclusion into my Gallery No.2. There is large population of Indian who are living aboard. Most favored are the ones who are in the United States, followed by Non-resident Indians in Gulf countries like Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait etc...Even more popular are the NRI girls. They tend to live their life to its fullest. They do freak out and enjoy their life. Here is Photo Set of NRI desi girls enjoying their holidays aboard. Some are in bikinis and at sea. artying is cool! That was the trend until recently. Every other person on earth wanted to be seen at one party or the other. And the trend of appearing in Page 3 was rampant across all cities and even towns! Web is place where you can find photos of all those partying bellys! These pictures have become most watched photos on the internet. Especially the class of Indians, who are deprived of party culture! They would lay their eyes to any party photo of sexy dressed party girls and women!You might be dreaming about joining such parties and cheers with those sexy willing party girls! Partying is considered COOL! But that was till recently. There is too much partying going on these days. And party is being turning to be uncool. Celebrities are not interested any more in partying – even if they do party, they make sure that their pictures are not clicked and published in page 3! They simply resort to PLEASE PHOTO MAT LO! Tack ticks.But certain sections of Indian audience still admire Partying Girls and their pictures. Web is a place where you can find all kinds of parties and partying girls. Page3 Girls and women are too willing to be photographed and published in the web. Presentng to you here is some of the Parting girls photos which did not find way to Page 3!Till recently partying and socializing was considered an opportunity to display the designer cloths and taste you are into. But partying days are over. Several celebrities have given up partying. And they don’t want to seen in every party happening in the city!“Work hard, party harder” is no more valid these days! People tend to be choosy in going to parties these days. They wanted to have quality time when it comes to spending their time at the party.These party girls wanted to be seen less and less – and be in demand always.



Partying is cool!Indian girls are partying aboard























millions of private and public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, and other technologies.The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in every-day speech without much distinction. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The Internet is a global data communications system. It is a hardware and software infrastructure that provides connectivity between computers. In contrast, the Web is one of the services communicated via the Internet. It is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.[1]The term the Internet, when referring to the Internet, has traditionally been treated as a proper noun and written with an initial capital letter. There is a trend to regard it as a generic term or common noun and thus write it as "the internet", without the capital.The USSR's launch of Sputnik spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency, known as ARPA, in February 1958 to regain a technological lead.[2][3] ARPA created the Information Processing Technology Office (IPTO) to further the research of the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) program, which had networked country-wide radar systems together for the first time. J. C. R. Licklider ws selected to head the IPTO.Licklider moved from the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory at Harvard University to MIT in 1950, after becoming interested in information technology. At MIT, he served on a committee that established Lincoln Laboratory and worked on the SAGE project. In 1957 he became a Vice President at BBN, where he bought the first production PDP-1 computer and conducted the first public demonstration of time-sharing.At the IPTO, Licklider got Lawrence Roberts to start a project to make a network, and Roberts based the technology on the work of Paul Baran,[4] who had written an exhaustive study for the U.S. Air Force that recommended packet switching (as opposed to circuit switching) to make a network highly robust and survivable. After much work, the first two nodes of what would become the ARPANET were interconnected between UCLA and SRI (later SRI International) in Menlo Park, California, on October 29, 1969. The ARPANET was one of the "eve" networks of today's Internet.Following on from the demonstration that packet switching worked on the ARPANET, the British Post Office, Telenet, DATAPAC and TRANSPAC collaborated to create the first international packet-switched network service. In the UK, this was referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. The collection of X.25-based networks grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. The X.25 packet switching standard was developed in the CCITT (now called ITU-T) around 1976.Birth of the Internet plaque at Stanford UniversityX.25 was independent of the TCP/IP protocols that arose from the experimental work of DARPA on the ARPANET, Packet Radio Net and Packet Satellite Net during the same time period. Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn developed the first description of the TCP protocols during 1973 and published a paper on the subject in May 1974. Use of the term "Internet" to describe a single global TCP/IP network originated in December 1974 with the publication of RFC 675, the first full specification of TCP that was written by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine, then at Stanford University. During the next nine years, work proceeded to refine the protocols and to implement them on a wide range of operating systems.The first TCP/IP-based wide-area network was operational by January 1, 1983 when all hosts on the ARPANET were switched over from the older NCP protocols. In 1985, the United States' National Science Foundation (NSF) commissioned the construction of the NSFNET, a university 56 kilobit/second network backbone using computers called "fuzzballs" by their inventor, David L. Mills. The following year, NSF sponsored the conversion to a higher-speed 1.5 megabit/second network. A key decision to use the DARPA TCP/IP protocols was made by Dennis Jennings, then in charge of the Supercomputer program at NSF.The opening of the network to commercial interests began in 1988. The US Federal Networking Council approved the interconnection of the NSFNET to the commercial MCI Mail system in that year and the link was made in the summer of 1989. Other commercial electronic e-mail services were soon connected, including OnTyme, Telemail and Compuserve. In that same year, three commercial Internet service providers (ISP) were created: UUNET, PSINet and CERFNET. Important, separate networks that offered gateways into, then later merged with, the Internet include Usenet and BITNET. Various other commercial and educational networks, such as Telenet, Tymnet, Compuserve and JANET were interconnected with the growing Internet. Telenet (later called Sprintnet) was a large privately funded national computer network with free dial-up access in cities throughout the U.S. that had been in operation since the 1970s. This network was eventually interconnected with the others in the 1980s as the TCP/IP protocol became increasingly popular. The ability of TCP/IP to work over virtually any pre-existing communication networks allowed for a great ease of growth, although the rapid growth of the Internet was due primarily to the availability of commercial routers from companies such as Cisco Systems, Proteon and Juniper, the availability of commercial Ethernet equipment for local-area networking, and the widespread implementation of TCP/IP on the UNIX operating system.GrowthGraph of internet users per 100 inhabitants between 1997 and 2007 by International Telecommunication UnionAlthough the basic applications and guidelines that make the Internet possible had existed for almost two decades, the network did not gain a public face until the 1990s. On 6 August 1991, CERN, a pan European organisation for particle research, publicized the new World Wide Web project. The Web was invented by English scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.An early popular web browser was ViolaWWW, patterned after HyperCard and built using the X Window System. It was eventually replaced in popularity by the Mosaic web browser. In 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois released version 1.0 of Mosaic, and by late 1994 there was growing public interest in the previously academic, technical Internet. By 1996 usage of the word Internet had become commonplace, and consequently, so had its use as a synecdoche in reference to the World Wide Web.Meanwhile, over the course of the decade, the Internet successfully accommodated the majority of previously existing public computer networks (although some networks, such as FidoNet, have remained separate). During the 1990s, it was estimated that the Internet grew by 100% per year, with a brief period of explosive growth in 1996 and 1997.[5] This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network. [6]sing various statistics, AMD estimated the population of internet users to be 1.5 billion as of January 2009.[7]University students' appreciation and contributionsNew findings in the field of communications during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s were quickly adopted by universities across North America.Examples of early university Internet communities are Cleveland FreeNet, Blacksburg Electronic Village and NSTN in Nova Scotia.[8] Students took up the opportunity of free communications and saw this new phenomenon as a tool of liberation. Personal computers and the Internet would free them from corporations and governments (Nelson, Jennings, Stallman).Graduate students played a huge part in the creation of ARPANET.[citation needed] In the 1960s, the network working group, which did most of the design for ARPANET's protocols, was composed mainly of graduate students.Today's InternetThe My Opera Community server rack. From the top, user file storage (content of files.myopera.com), "bigma" (the master MySQL database server), and two IBM blade centers containing multi-purpose machines (Apache front ends, Apache back ends, slave MySQL database servers, load balancers, file servers, cache servers and sync masters)Aside from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (e.g., peering agreements), and by technical specifications or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing policies.By December 31, 2008, 1.574 billion people were using the Internet according to Internet World Statistics.[9]Internet protocolsFurther information: Internet Protocol SuiteThe complex communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. While the hardware can often be used to support other software systems, it is the design and the rigorous standardization process of the software architecture that characterizes the Internet.The responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems has been delegated to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).[10] The IETF conducts standard-setting work groups, open to any individual, about the various aspects of Internet architecture. Resulting discussions and final standards are published in Requests for Comments (RFCs), freely available on the IETF web site.The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in a series of RFCs that constitute the Internet Standards. These standards describe a system known as the Internet Protocol Suite. This is a model architecture that divides methods into a layered system of protocols (RFC 1122, RFC 1123). The layers correspond to the environment or scope in which their services operate. At the top is the space (Application Layer) of the software application, e.g., a web browser application, and just below it is the Transport Layer which connects applications on different hosts via the network (e.g., client-server model). The underlying network consists of two layers: the Internet Layer which enables computers to connect to one-another via intermediate (transit) networks and thus is the layer that establishes internetworking and the Internet, and lastly, at the bottom, is a software layer that provides connectivity between hosts on the same local link (therefor called Link Layer), e.g., a local area network (LAN) or a dial-up connection. This model is also known as the TCP/IP model of networking. While other models have been developed, such as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, they are not compatible in the details of description, nor implementation.The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP) which provides addressing systems for computers on the Internet and facilitates the internetworking of networks. IP Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of the today's Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up to ~4.3 billion (109) Internet hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion. A new protocol version, IPv6, was developed which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of data traffic. IPv6 is currently in commercial deployment phase around the world.IPv6 is not interoperable with IPv4. It essentially establishes a "parallel" version of the Internet not accessible with IPv4 software. This means software upgrades are necessary for every networking device that needs to communicate on the IPv6 Internet. Most modern computer operating systems are already converted to operate with both versions of the Internet Protocol. Network infrastructures, however, are still lagging in this evelopment.Internet structureThere have been many analyses of the Internet and its structure. For example, it has been determined that both the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of scale-free networks.Similar to the way the commercial Internet providers connect via Internet exchange points, research networks tend to interconnect into large subnetworks such as the following: * GEANT * GLORIAD * The Internet2 Network (formally known as the Abilene Network) * JANET (the UK's national research and education network)These in turn are built around relatively smaller networks. See also the list of academic computer network organizations.Computer network diagrams often represent the Internet using a cloud symbol from which network communications pass in and out.[11]ICANNICANN headquarters in Marina Del Rey, California, United StatesMain article: ICANNThe Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is the authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers on the Internet, including domain names, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers. A globally unified namespace (i.e., a system of names in which there is at most one holder for each possible name) is essential for the Internet to function. ICANN is headquartered in Marina del Rey, California, but is overseen by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and non-commercial communities. The US government continues to have the primary role in approving changes to the root zone file that lies at the heart of the domain name system. Because the Internet is a distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected networks, the Internet has no governing body. ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body on the global Internet, but the scope of its authority extends only to the Internet's systems of domain names, IP addresses, protocol ports and parameter numbers.On November 16, 2005, the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues.LanguageFurther information: English on the Internet, Global Internet usage, and UnicodeThe prevalent language for communication on the Internet is English. This may be a result of the Internet's origins, as well as English's role as a lingua franca. It may also be related to the poor capability of early computers, largely originating in the United States, to handle characters other than those in the English variant of the Latin alphabet.After English (28.6% of Web visitors) the most requested languages on the World Wide Web are Chinese (20.3%), Spanish (8.2%), Japanese (5.9%), French and Portuguese (4.6%), German (4.1%), Arabic (2.6%), Russian (2.4%), and Korean (2.3%).[12]By region, 41% of the world's Internet users are based in Asia, 25% in Europe, 16% in North America, 11% in Latin America and the Caribbean, 3% in Africa, 3% in the Middle East and 1% in Australia.[9]The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years, especially in the use of Unicode, that good facilities are available for development and communication in most widely used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of foreign language characters, also known as kryakozyabry) still remain.Internet and the workplaceThe Internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections and Web applications.The Internet viewed on mobile devicesThe Internet can now be accessed virtually anywhere by numerous means. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet from anywhere there is a cellular network supporting that device's technology.Within the limitations imposed by the small screen and other limited facilities of such a pocket-sized device, all the services of the Internet, including email and web browsing, may be available in this way. Service providers may restrict the range of these services and charges for data access may be significant, compared to home usage.Common usesE-mailMain article: E-mailThe concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Even today it can be important to distinguish between Internet and internal e-mail systems. Internet e-mail may travel and be stored unencrypted on many other networks and machines out of both the sender's and the recipient's control. During this time it is quite possible for the content to be read and even tampered with by third parties, if anyone considers it important enough. Purely internal or intranet mail systems, where the information never leaves the corporate or organization's network, are much more secure, although in any organization there will be IT and other personnel whose job may involve monitoring, and occasionally accessing, the e-mail of other employees not addressed to them. Today you can send pictures and attach files on e-mail. Most e-mail servers today also feature the ability to send e-mail to multiple e-mail addresses.The World Wide WebMain article: World Wide WebGraphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating hyperlinksMany people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web (or just the Web) interchangeably, but, as discussed above, the two terms are not synonymous.The World Wide Web is a huge set of interlinked documents, images and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. These hyperlinks and URLs allow the web servers and other machines that store originals, and cached copies of, these resources to deliver them as required using HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). HTTP is only one of the communication protocols used on the Internet.Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to share and exchange business logic and data.Software products that can access the resources of the Web are correctly termed user agents. In normal use, web browsers, such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and Apple Safari, access web pages and allow users to navigate from one to another via hyperlinks. Web documents may contain almost any combination of computer data including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content including games, office applications and scientific demonstrations.Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google, millions of people worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data.Using the Web, it is also easier than ever before for individuals and organisations to publish ideas and information to an extremely large audience. Anyone can find ways to publish a web page, a blog or build a website for very little initial cost. Publishing and maintaining large, professional websites full of attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition, however.Many individuals and some companies and groups use "web logs" or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organisations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work.Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain popular, and have become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities have existed since the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Facebook and MySpace currently have large followings. These operations often brand themselves as social network services rather than simply as web page hosts.Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale of products and services directly via the Web continues to grow.In the early days, web pages were usually created as sets of complete and isolated HTML text files stored on a web server. More recently, websites are more often created using content management or wiki software with, initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of a club or other organisation or members of the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for that purpose, while casual visitors view and read this content in its final HTML form. There may or may not be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and making it available to the target visitors.Remote accessMain article: Remote accessThe Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them



Partying is cool!Indian girls are partying aboard

























corporation of students in 849 by the regent Bardas of emperor Michael III, is considered by some to be the earliest institution of higher learning with some of the characteristics we associate today with a university (research and teaching, auto-administration, academic independence, et cetera). If a university is defined as "an institution of higher learning" then it is preceded by several others, including the Academy that it was founded to compete with and eventually replaced. If the original meaning of the word is considered "a corporation of students" then this could be the first example of such an institution.[2]If the definition of a university is assumed to mean an institution of higher education and research which issues academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master and doctorate) like in the modern sense of the word, then the medieval Madrasahs known as Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) founded in the 9th century would be the first examples of such an institution.[3][4] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri.[5] Also in the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were founded in the medieval Islamic world, where medical degrees and diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine.[4][6] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah university which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees (Ijazah),[4] and had individual faculties[7] for a theological seminary, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy, and logic in Islamic philosophy.[4]The University of Salamanca in Spain, founded 1218[edit] Medieval universitiesMain article: Medieval universityThe first higher education institution in medieval Europe was the University of Constantinople, followed by the University of Salerno (9th century), the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School in the Bulgarian Empire (9th century). The first degree-granting universities in Europe were the University of Bologna (1088), the University of Paris (c. 1150, later associated with the Sorbonne), the University of Oxford (1167), the University of Cambridge (1209), the University of Salamanca (1218), the University of Montpellier (1220), the University of Padua (1222), the University of Naples Federico II (1224), and the University of Toulouse (1229).[8][9] Some scholars such as George Makdisi,[3] John Makdisi[10] and Hugh Goddard[11] argue that these medieval universities were influenced in many ways by the medieval Madrasah institutions in Islamic Spain, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East (during the Crusades).The earliest universities in Western Europe were developed under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali (NB: The development of cathedral schools into Universities actually appears to be quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception — see Leff, Paris and Oxford Universities), later they were also founded by Kings (Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Krakow) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt). In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or ogic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. (See Degrees of the University of Oxford for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, especially in anglophone universities).Outside of Europe, there were many notable institutions of learning throughout history. In China, there was the famous Hanlin Academy, established during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), and was once headed by the Chancellor Shen Kuo (1031-1095), a famous Chinese scientist, inventor, mathematician, and statesman.[citation needed]he tower of the University of Coimbra, the oldest Portuguese university[edit] Modern universitiesMain article: History of European research universitiesThe end of the medieval period marked the beginning of the transformation of universities that would eventually result in the modern research university. Many external influences, such as eras of humanism, Enlightenment, Reformation, and Revolution, shaped research universities during their development.By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals, and by the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher’s liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories in universities.[citation needed] The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university.Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and become increasingly accessible to the masses. In Britain the move from industrial revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering. The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe. In a general sense, the basic structure and aims of universities have remained constant over the years.[citation needed][edit] OrganizationThe University of Sydney is Australia's oldest university.Although each institution is differently organized, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have a broader independence from state policies.Despite the variable policies, or cultural and economic standards available in different geographical locations create a tremendous disparity between universities around the world and even inside a country, the universities are usually among the foremost research and advanced training providers in every society. Most universities not only offer courses in subjects ranging from the natural sciences, engineering, architecture or medicine, to sports sciences, social sciences, law or humanities, they also offer many amenities to their student population including a variety of places to eat, banks, bookshops, print shops, job centres, and bars. In addition, universities have a range of facilities like libraries, sports centers, students' unions, computer labs, and research laboratories. In a number of countries, major classic universities usually have their own botanical gardens, astronomical observatories, business incubators and university hospitals.[edit] Universities around the worldTexas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas, USSee also: List of colleges and universities by countryThe funding and organisation of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their tudents.[12][edit] ClassificationBrooks Hall, home of the Terry College of Business at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, USAcross the world there are differing standards for the legal definition of the term "university" and formal accreditation of institutions. There is no nationally standardized definition of the term in the United States, although the term is primarily used to designate research institutions and is often reserved for doctorate-granting institutions[13], but some US states, such as Massachusetts, will only grant a school "university status" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees.[14]In the United Kingdom, an institution can only use the term if it has been granted by the Privy Council, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992.[15]In many regions of the world, a university is any institution of higher education and research which grants autonomously a range of academic degrees in several fields, from bachelor's degrees to doctorate degrees, including masters' degrees, as well as honoris causa degrees and agrégation/habilitation diplomas in the places where these are used.[citation needed] Independently performed research conducted by universities includes both fundamental research and applied research.[edit] Colloquial usageColloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "when I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland, college is used instead: "when I was in college..."). See the college article for further discussion. In Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the German-speaking countries "university" is often contracted to "uni". In New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity", which was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.[edit] CriticismThe examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.David Graeber in his 2004 study Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology claimed that the university functions as a hierarchical disciplining device that places graduates in state and corporate bureaucracies.[16]Richard Vedder, an Ohio University professor and member of the Commission on the Future of Higher Education, has been a vocal critic of how institutions of higher education, including the universities, are financed. In his 2004 book, "Going Broke by Degree," Vedder says that tuition increases have rapidly outpaced inflation; that productivity in higher education has fallen or remained stagnant; and that third-party tuition payments from government or private sources have insulated students from bearing the full cost of their education, allowing costs to rise more rapidly.[17][edit] CostMain article: Tuition[edit] Religious / Political Control of UniversitiesIn some countries, in some political systems, universities are controlled by political or religious authorities who forbid certain fields of study or impose certain other fields. Sometimes national or racial limitations exist in the students that can be admitted, the faculty and staff that can be employed, and the research that can be conducted.[edit] Nazi universitiesMain article: Nazi universityBooks from university libraries, written by anti-Nazi or Jewish authors, were burned in places (e.g., in Berlin) in 1933, and the curricula were subsequently modified. Jewish professors and students were expelled according to the racial policy of Nazi Germany, see also the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. Martin Heidegger became the rector of Freiburg University, where he delivered a number of Nazi speeches. On August 21, 1933 Heidegger established the Führer-principle at the university, later he was appointed Führer of Freiburg University. University of Poznań was closed by the Nazi Occupation in 1939. 1941–1944 a German university worked there. University of Strasbourg was transferred to Clermont-Ferrand and Reichsuniversität Straßburg existed 1941–1944 [1].Nazi universities ended in 1945.[edit] Gallery



blogger templates | Make Money Online